Bloom's Learning Taxonomy

6. Bloom's Learning Taxonomy

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom headed a group of educational psychologists who developed a classification of levels of intellectual behavior important in learning. Bloom found that over 95 % of the test questions students encounter require them to think only at the lowest possible level...the recall of information.

Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or recognition of facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental levels, to the highest order which is classified as evaluation. 

Bloom's Taxonomy

Intellectual activity on each level are listed below:

Kirkpatrick Evaluation Model

And last but not the least, the final instructional design model is:

7. Kirkpatrick's 4 Levels of Training Evaluation  
   
Donald Kirkpartick has developed a very popular evaluation model that has been used since the late 1950s by the training community. The focus is on measuring four kinds of outcomes that should result from a highly effective training program. 
   
Kirkpatrick’s model includes four levels or steps of outcome evaluation:

Kirkpatrick's Evaluation Model

Level 1- Reaction:

At this level- the goal is to measure participants’ reactions to the training program. You should measure their reactions immediately after the training program is completed. Evaluation should not just include reactions towards the overall program (e.g., Did you like the program?); it should also include measurement of participants’ reactions or attitudes toward specific components of the program, such as the instructor, the topics, the presentation style, the schedule, audiovisuals, etc. Furthermore, each of these components can be further broken down into sub-components for evaluation (e.g., you can ask participants to evaluate specific characteristics of the instructor, the presentation, etc.).

Evaluation relies on the measurement of attitudes, usually through the use of a questionnaire. It is important to include closed-ended items (including rating scales) as well as open-ended items on your questionnaire. Here are two open-ended items:

·       In your view, what were the three most important weaknesses of the program?

·       In your view, what were the three most important strengths of the program?

It is important to learn the weaknesses, as well as the strengths, in order to improve a program. Participants must fill out the questionnaires, it is best not to have them put their names on the instruments because of the advantages of anonymity over confidentiality.

Level 2- Learning:

Here the goal is to determine, what did the participants learned during the training event. Did the learning outcome is aligned with the learning Objective? Learning outcomes can include changes in knowledge (e.g., What are the key differences between Windows 95 and Windows ME?), skills (Can the participant upload a new operating system to a computer), or attitudes (Have participants’ attitudes toward computers improved?).

Knowledge is typically measured using already available or instructor constructed achievement tests

Skills is measured using performance test. It is a test that requires the learner to create a product or demonstrate a process. Obviously the goal is to determine whether each person can perform the skills they have been taught in the training event.

Attitudes are measured with questionnaires similar to the questionnaires described for level 1 evaluation. You will typically have the participants give their ratings for various items (responding with Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, or Strongly Disagree or with other rating scales), and you should include some open-ended items to allow participants to respond in their own words (e.g., How do you feel about diversity in the workplace?).

Level 3 - Behavior

This level of evaluation specifically involves measuring the transfer of knowledge, skills, and attitudes from the training context to the workplace.

The level three question is, Did the training have a positive effect on job performance?

So how does one design a level three evaluation? Here are Kirkpartick’s recommendations:

1. Use a control group if possible. That is, use the strongest design that is feasible.

2. Allow time for the behavior change to take place.

3. Evaluate both before and after the program if practical. Again, use the strongest design that is feasible.

4. Survey and/or interview one or more of the following: trainees, their immediate supervisor, their subordinates, and others who often observe their behavior. 

5. Get 100 percent response or a sampling.

6. Repeat the evaluation at appropriate times.

7. Consider cost versus benefits. 

Level 4 - Results

Here the goal is to find out if the training program led to final results, especially business results that contribute to the “bottom line” (i.e., business profits).

Level 4 outcomes : 

- are not limited to return on training investment (ROI). 

- can include other major results that contribute to the well functioning of an     organization.

- includes any outcome that most people would agree is “good for the         

  business.” 

Here are some examples of different kinds of level four outcomes:

·       Improved quality of work.

·       Higher productivity.

·       Reduction in turnover.

·       Reduction in scrap rate (i.e., less wasted resources). 

·       Improved quality of work life. 

·       Improved human relations (e.g., improved vertical and horizontal communication) 

·       Increased sales.

·       Fewer grievances.

·       Lower absenteeism.

·       Higher worker morale.

·       Fewer accidents. 

·       Greater job satisfaction.

Kemp's IDM, Gagne's 9 Events of Instruction

4. Kemp's Instructional Design Model

The Jerold Kemp instructional design method and model defines nine different components of an instructional design and at the same time adopts a continuous implementation/evaluation model.

Kemp adopts a wide view, the oval shape of his model conveys that the design and development process is a continuous cycle that requires constant planning, design, development and assessment to insure effective instruction. The model is nonlinear and seems to encourage designers to work in all areas as appropriate (Steven McGriff).

The model is particularly useful for developing instructional programs that blend technology, pedagogy and content to deliver effective, inclusive (reliable) and efficient learning.

According to McGriff, Kemp identifies nine key elements:

1. Identify instructional problems, and specify goals for designing an instructional program.
2. Examine learner characteristics that should receive attention during planning.
3. Identify subject content, and analyze task components related to stated goals and purposes.
4. State instructional objectives for the learner.
5. Sequence content within each instructional unit for logical learning.
6. Design instructional strategies so that each learner can master the objectives.
7. Plan the instructional message and delivery.
8. Develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives.
9. Select resources to support instruction and learning activities.
   Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Kemp_design_model

 Kemp Instructional Design Model

5. Gagné's Nine Events of Instruction

Robert Gagné is considered to be the foremost contributor to the systematic approach to instructional design and training. Gagne and his followers are known as behaviorists, and their focus is on the outcomes (or behaviors) resulting from training.

Gagné's book, The Conditions of Learning, identified the mental conditions for learning. Gagné created a nine-step process called the events of instruction, which correlate to and address the conditions of learning. The nine events of instruction are: 

1. Gain attention
2. Inform learner of objectives
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning
4. Present stimulus material
5. Provide learner guidance
6. Elicit performance
7. Provide feedback
8. Assess performance
9. Enhance retention transfer

ADDIE, Dick and Carey Instructional Model

2. ADDIE Model/Process

ADDIE process/model is most commonly used for designing and developing the instructional course material to provide training to the learners. The ADDIE model is at the very core of instructional design and is the basis of instructional systems design (ISD). There are various adaptations of the ADDIE model but it generally consists of five cyclical phases

ADDIE Model

3. Dick and Carey Model/Process

The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model was originally published in 1978 by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitled The Systematic Design of Instruction.

The model addresses instruction as an entire system, focusing on the interrelationship between context, content, learning and instruction. 

According to Dick and Carey, "Components such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities, delivery system, and learning and performance environments interact with each other and work together to bring about the desired student learning outcomes".  

The components of the Systems Approach Model, also known as the Dick and Carey Model, are as follows:

• Identify Instructional Goal(s): goal statement describes a skill, knowledge or attitude(SKA) that a learner will be expected to acquire
• Conduct Instructional Analysis: Identify what a learner must recall and identify what learner must be able to do to perform particular task
• Analyze Learners and Contexts: Identify general characteristics of the target audience including prior skills, prior experience, and basic demographics; identify characteristics directly related to the skill to be taught; and perform analysis of the performance and learning settings.
• Write Performance Objectives: Objectives consists of a description of the behavior, the condition and criteria. The component of an objective that describes the criteria that will be used to judge the learner's performance.
• Develop Assessments :Purpose of entry behavior testing, purpose of pretesting, purpose of post testing, purpose of practice items/practice problems
• Develop Instructional Strategy: Pre-instructional activities, content presentation, Learner participation, assessment
• Develop and Select Instructional Materials
• Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction: Designer try to identify areas of the instructional materials that are in need of improvement.
• Revise Instruction: To identify poor test items and to identify poor instruction
• Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation

Merril's First Principles of Instruction

Instructional Design models or processes helps in designing the structure and meaning to the ID problems. These models or processes help us to visualize the problem, to break it down into discrete, manageable units. The value of a specific model is determined within the context of its use. Lets see what are the different models/processes :

1. Merrill's First Principles of Instruction

    Many current instructional design models suggest that the most effective learning environments are those that are problem-based and involve the student in four distinct phases of learning: 

Merrill's First Principle of Instruction

At the top level, the instructional design prescriptions based on first principles are as follows:

• Learning is facilitated when learners are engaged in solving real-world problems.
• Learning is facilitated when existing knowledge is activated as a foundation for new knowledge.
• Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner.
• Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is applied by the learner
• Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is integrated into the learner's world.
  Source: http://id2.usu.edu/Papers/5FirstPrinciples.PDF

          

What is Instructional Designing ?

Instructional designing is a systematic process to design and develop the educational training materials using different methodologies so that the learners can gain knowledge, skills and become more effective and efficient in the related area.

Definitions of Instructional Design?

"Instructional design, also known as instructional systems design, is the analysis of learning needs and systematic development of instruction. Instructional designers often use Instructional technology as a method for developing instruction. Instructional design models typically specify a method, that if followed will facilitate the transfer of knowledge, skills and attitude to the recipient or acquirer of the instruction." Source: www.wikipedia.org

"Instructional Design is the systematic development of instructional specifications using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the entire process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those needs. It includes development of instructional materials and activities; and tryout and evaluation of all instruction and learner activities." Source: www.umich.edu

Definitions of Instructional Technology?

"The use of technology (computers, compact disc, interactive media, modem, satellite, teleconferencing, etc.) to support learning." Source: www.neiu.edu

"Instructional technology was born as a military response to the problems of a labor shortage during WWII in the United States. There was a definitive need to fill the factories with skilled labor. Instructional technology provided a methodology for training in a systematic and efficient manner."
Source: www.wikipedia.org

"Instructional technology is the systematic application of strategies and techniques derived from behavioral, cognitive, and constructive theories to the solution of instructional problems. www.umich.edu

There are various Instructional designing models which helps use to create the learning materials:

• Merrill's First Principles of Instruction
• ADDIE Model
• Dick and Carey Model
• Kemp's Instructional Design Model
• Gagné's Nine Events of Instruction
• Bloom's Learning Taxonomy
• Kirkpatrick's 4 Levels of Training Evaluation